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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"> and <a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">data storage</a> types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_coherence" title="Memory coherence">Memory coherence</a></li>
<li><a href="Cache_coherence" title="Cache coherence">Cache coherence</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_access_pattern" title="Memory access pattern">Memory access pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_map" title="Memory map">Memory map</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_data_storage#Secondary_storage" title="Computer data storage">Secondary storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">MOS memory</a>
<ul><li><a href="Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating-gate</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Continuous_availability" title="Continuous availability">Continuous availability</a></li>
<li><a href="Areal_density_(computer_storage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Areal density (computer storage)">Areal density (computer storage)</a></li>
<li><a href="Block_(data_storage)" title="Block (data storage)">Block (data storage)</a></li>
<li><a href="Object_storage" title="Object storage">Object storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Direct-attached_storage" title="Direct-attached storage">Direct-attached storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Network-attached_storage" title="Network-attached storage">Network-attached storage</a>
<ul><li><a href="Storage_area_network" title="Storage area network">Storage area network</a></li>
<li><a href="Block-level_storage" title="Block-level storage">Block-level storage</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Single-instance_storage" title="Single-instance storage">Single-instance storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Data" title="Data">Data</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_model" title="Data model">Structured data</a></li>
<li><a href="Unstructured_data" title="Unstructured data">Unstructured data</a></li>
<li><a href="Big_data" title="Big data">Big data</a></li>
<li><a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_corruption" title="Data corruption">Data corruption</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_cleansing" title="Data cleansing">Data cleansing</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_degradation" title="Data degradation">Data degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_integrity" title="Data integrity">Data integrity</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_security" title="Data security">Data security</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_validation" title="Data validation">Data validation</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_validation_and_reconciliation" title="Data validation and reconciliation">Data validation and reconciliation</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_recovery" title="Data recovery">Data recovery</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Data cluster">Data cluster</a></li>
<li><a href="Directory_(computing)" title="Directory (computing)">Directory</a></li>
<li><a href="Shared_resource" title="Shared resource">Shared resource</a></li>
<li><a href="File_sharing" title="File sharing">File sharing</a></li>
<li><a href="File_system" title="File system">File system</a></li>
<li><a href="Clustered_file_system" title="Clustered file system">Clustered file system</a></li>
<li><a href="Clustered_file_system#Distributed_file_systems" title="Clustered file system">Distributed file system</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributed_file_system_for_cloud" title="Distributed file system for cloud">Distributed file system for cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributed_data_store" title="Distributed data store">Distributed data store</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributed_database" title="Distributed database">Distributed database</a></li>
<li><a href="Database" title="Database">Database</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_bank" title="Data bank">Data bank</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_storage" title="Data storage">Data storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_store" title="Data store">Data store</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_deduplication" title="Data deduplication">Data deduplication</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">Data structure</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_redundancy" title="Data redundancy">Data redundancy</a></li>
<li><a href="Replication_(computing)" title="Replication (computing)">Replication (computing)</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_refresh" title="Memory refresh">Memory refresh</a></li>
<li><a href="Storage_record" title="Storage record">Storage record</a></li>
<li><a href="Information_repository" title="Information repository">Information repository</a></li>
<li><a href="Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">Knowledge base</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_file" title="Computer file">Computer file</a></li>
<li><a href="Object_file" title="Object file">Object file</a></li>
<li><a href="File_deletion" title="File deletion">File deletion</a></li>
<li><a href="File_copying" title="File copying">File copying</a></li>
<li><a href="Backup" title="Backup">Backup</a></li>
<li><a href="Core_dump" title="Core dump">Core dump</a></li>
<li><a href="Hex_dump" title="Hex dump">Hex dump</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data communication</a></li>
<li><a href="Information_transfer" title="Information transfer">Information transfer</a></li>
<li><a href="Temporary_file" title="Temporary file">Temporary file</a></li>
<li><a href="Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">Copy protection</a></li>
<li><a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li>
<li><a href="Volume_(computing)" title="Volume (computing)">Volume (computing)</a></li>
<li><a href="Boot_sector" title="Boot sector">Boot sector</a></li>
<li><a href="Master_boot_record" title="Master boot record">Master boot record</a></li>
<li><a href="Volume_boot_record" title="Volume boot record">Volume boot record</a></li>
<li><a href="GUID_Partition_Table" title="GUID Partition Table">GUID Partition Table</a></li>
<li><a href="Disk_array" title="Disk array">Disk array</a></li>
<li><a href="Disk_image" title="Disk image">Disk image</a></li>
<li><a href="Disk_mirroring" title="Disk mirroring">Disk mirroring</a></li>
<li><a href="Disk_aggregation" title="Disk aggregation">Disk aggregation</a></li>
<li><a href="Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Disk partitioning</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_segmentation" title="Memory segmentation">Memory segmentation</a></li>
<li><a href="Locality_of_reference" title="Locality of reference">Locality of reference</a></li>
<li><a href="Logical_disk" title="Logical disk">Logical disk</a></li>
<li><a href="Storage_virtualization" title="Storage virtualization">Storage virtualization</a></li>
<li><a href="Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory-mapped_file" title="Memory-mapped file">Memory-mapped file</a></li>
<li><a href="Software_entropy" class="mw-redirect" title="Software entropy">Software entropy</a></li>
<li><a href="Software_rot" title="Software rot">Software rot</a></li>
<li><a href="In-memory_database" title="In-memory database">In-memory database</a></li>
<li><a href="In-memory_processing" title="In-memory processing">In-memory processing</a></li>
<li><a href="Persistence_(computer_science)" title="Persistence (computer science)">Persistence (computer science)</a></li>
<li><a href="Persistent_data_structure" title="Persistent data structure">Persistent data structure</a></li>
<li><a href="RAID" title="RAID">RAID</a></li>
<li><a href="Non-RAID_drive_architectures" title="Non-RAID drive architectures">Non-RAID drive architectures</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li>
<li><a href="Bank_switching" title="Bank switching">Bank switching</a></li>
<li><a href="Grid_computing" title="Grid computing">Grid computing</a></li>
<li><a href="Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">Cloud computing</a></li>
<li><a href="Cloud_storage" title="Cloud storage">Cloud storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Fog_computing" title="Fog computing">Fog computing</a></li>
<li><a href="Edge_computing" title="Edge computing">Edge computing</a></li>
<li><a href="Dew_computing" title="Dew computing">Dew computing</a></li>
<li><a href="Amdahl's_law" title="Amdahl's law">Amdahl's law</a></li>
<li><a href="Moore's_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li>
<li><a href="Mark_Kryder#Kryder's_law_projection" title="Mark Kryder">Kryder's law</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">
<a href="Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">Volatile</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Cache_(computing)#HARDWARE" title="Cache (computing)">Hardware cache</a>
<ul><li><a href="CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">CPU cache</a></li>
<li><a href="Scratchpad_memory" title="Scratchpad memory">Scratchpad memory</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">DRAM</a>
<ul><li><a href="EDRAM" title="EDRAM">eDRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Synchronous_dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Synchronous dynamic random-access memory">SDRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Synchronous_dynamic_random-access_memory#Synchronous_Graphics_RAM_(SGRAM)" title="Synchronous dynamic random-access memory">SGRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="DDR_SDRAM" title="DDR SDRAM">DDR</a></li>
<li><a href="GDDR_SDRAM" title="GDDR SDRAM">GDDR</a></li>
<li><a href="LPDDR" title="LPDDR">LPDDR</a></li>
<li><a href="Quad_Data_Rate_SRAM" title="Quad Data Rate SRAM">QDRSRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Dynamic_random-access_memory#Extended_data_out_DRAM" title="Dynamic random-access memory">EDO DRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="XDR_DRAM" title="XDR DRAM">XDR DRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="RDRAM" title="RDRAM">RDRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="High_Bandwidth_Memory" title="High Bandwidth Memory">HBM</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">SRAM</a>
<ul><li><a href="1T-SRAM" title="1T-SRAM">1T-SRAM</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">ReRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantum_memory" title="Quantum memory">QRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Content-addressable_memory" title="Content-addressable memory">Content-addressable memory</a> (CAM)</li>
<li><a href="Computational_RAM" title="Computational RAM">Computational RAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Video_random_access_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Video random access memory">VRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Dual-ported_RAM" title="Dual-ported RAM">Dual-ported RAM</a>
<ul><li><a href="Video_RAM_(dual-ported_DRAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)">Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Historical</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams–Kilburn tube</a> (1946–1947)</li>
<li><a href="Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">Delay-line memory</a> (1947)</li>
<li><a href="Mellon_optical_memory" title="Mellon optical memory">Mellon optical memory</a> (1951)</li>
<li><a href="Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a> (1952)</li>
<li><a href="Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li>
<li><a href="T-RAM" title="T-RAM">T-RAM</a> (2009)</li>
<li><a href="Z-RAM" title="Z-RAM">Z-RAM</a> (2002–2010)</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">
<a href="Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Non-volatile</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Diode_matrix" title="Diode matrix">Diode matrix</a></li>
<li><a href="Read-only_memory#Factory-programmed" title="Read-only memory">MROM</a></li>
<li><a href="Programmable_ROM" title="Programmable ROM">PROM</a>
<ul><li><a href="EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a></li>
<li><a href="EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="ROM_cartridge" title="ROM cartridge">ROM cartridge</a></li>
<li><a href="Solid-state_storage" title="Solid-state storage">Solid-state storage</a> (SSS)
<ul><li><a href="Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> is used in:</li>
<li><a href="Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">Solid-state drive</a> (SSD)</li>
<li><a href="Solid-state_hybrid_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state hybrid drive">Solid-state hybrid drive</a> (SSHD)</li>
<li><a href="USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a></li>
<li><a href="IBM_FlashSystem" title="IBM FlashSystem">IBM FlashSystem</a></li>
<li><a href="Flash_Core_Module" title="Flash Core Module">Flash Core Module</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Memory_card" title="Memory card">Memory card</a>
<ul><li><a href="Memory_Stick" title="Memory Stick">Memory Stick</a></li>
<li><a href="CompactFlash" title="CompactFlash">CompactFlash</a></li>
<li><a href="PC_Card" title="PC Card">PC Card</a></li>
<li><a href="MultiMediaCard" title="MultiMediaCard">MultiMediaCard</a></li>
<li><a href="SD_card" title="SD card">SD card</a></li>
<li><a href="SIM_card" title="SIM card">SIM card</a></li>
<li><a href="SmartMedia" title="SmartMedia">SmartMedia</a></li>
<li><a href="Universal_Flash_Storage" title="Universal Flash Storage">Universal Flash Storage</a></li>
<li><a href="SxS" title="SxS">SxS</a></li>
<li><a href="MicroP2" title="MicroP2">MicroP2</a></li>
<li><a href="XQD_card" title="XQD card">XQD card</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">Programmable metallization cell</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Non-volatile_random-access_memory" title="Non-volatile random-access memory">NVRAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li>
<li><a href="Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li>
<li><a href="Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">PCM</a> (<a href="3D_XPoint" title="3D XPoint">3D XPoint</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Magnetoresistive_RAM" title="Magnetoresistive RAM">MRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">Electrochemical RAM</a> (ECRAM)</li>
<li><a href="Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">Nano-RAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early-stage <a href="Non-volatile_random-access_memory" title="Non-volatile random-access memory">NVRAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">FeRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">ReRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Fe_FET" title="Fe FET">FeFET memory</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog recording</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Phonograph_cylinder" title="Phonograph cylinder">Phonograph cylinder</a></li>
<li><a href="Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">Phonograph record</a></li>
<li><a href="Quadruplex_videotape" title="Quadruplex videotape">Quadruplex videotape</a></li>
<li><a href="Vision_Electronic_Recording_Apparatus" title="Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus">Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus</a></li>
<li><a href="Magnetic_recording" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic recording">Magnetic recording</a>
<ul><li><a href="Magnetic_storage" title="Magnetic storage">Magnetic storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">Magnetic tape</a></li>
<li><a href="Magnetic-tape_data_storage" title="Magnetic-tape data storage">Magnetic-tape data storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Tape_drive" title="Tape drive">Tape drive</a></li>
<li><a href="Tape_library" title="Tape library">Tape library</a></li>
<li><a href="Digital_Data_Storage" title="Digital Data Storage">Digital Data Storage</a> (DDS)</li>
<li><a href="Videotape" title="Videotape">Videotape</a></li>
<li><a href="Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">Cassette tape</a></li>
<li><a href="Linear_Tape-Open" title="Linear Tape-Open">Linear Tape-Open</a></li>
<li><a href="Betamax" title="Betamax">Betamax</a></li>
<li><a href="8_mm_video_format" title="8 mm video format">8 mm video format</a></li>
<li><a href="DV_(video_format)" title="DV (video format)">DV</a></li>
<li><a href="MiniDV" class="mw-redirect" title="MiniDV">MiniDV</a></li>
<li><a href="MicroMV" title="MicroMV">MicroMV</a></li>
<li><a href="U-matic" title="U-matic">U-matic</a></li>
<li><a href="VHS" title="VHS">VHS</a></li>
<li><a href="S-VHS" title="S-VHS">S-VHS</a></li>
<li><a href="VHS-C" title="VHS-C">VHS-C</a></li>
<li><a href="D-VHS" title="D-VHS">D-VHS</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drive</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Optical_storage" title="Optical storage">Optical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a>
<ul><li><a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></li>
<li><a href="LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a></li>
<li><a href="Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio</a> (CDDA)</li>
<li><a href="Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a></li>
<li><a href="CD_Video" title="CD Video">CD Video</a></li>
<li><a href="CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-R</a></li>
<li><a href="CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a></li>
<li><a href="Video_CD" title="Video CD">Video CD</a></li>
<li><a href="Super_Video_CD" title="Super Video CD">Super Video CD</a></li>
<li><a href="Mini_CD" title="Mini CD">Mini CD</a></li>
<li><a href="Nintendo_optical_discs" title="Nintendo optical discs">Nintendo optical discs</a></li>
<li><a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a></li>
<li><a href="Hyper_CD-ROM" title="Hyper CD-ROM">Hyper CD-ROM</a></li>
<li><a href="DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li>
<li><a href="DVD_recordable#DVD+R_and_DVD+RW_(DVD_"plus")" title="DVD recordable">DVD+R</a></li>
<li><a href="DVD-Video" title="DVD-Video">DVD-Video</a></li>
<li><a href="DVD_card" title="DVD card">DVD card</a></li>
<li><a href="DVD-RAM" title="DVD-RAM">DVD-RAM</a></li>
<li><a href="MiniDVD" title="MiniDVD">MiniDVD</a></li>
<li><a href="HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</a></li>
<li><a href="Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a></li>
<li><a href="Ultra_HD_Blu-ray" title="Ultra HD Blu-ray">Ultra HD Blu-ray</a></li>
<li><a href="Holographic_Versatile_Disc" title="Holographic Versatile Disc">Holographic Versatile Disc</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Write_once_read_many" title="Write once read many">WORM</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">In development</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li>
<li><a href="Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">NRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede memory</a></li>
<li><a href="Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">ECRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Patterned_media" title="Patterned media">Patterned media</a></li>
<li><a href="Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">Holographic data storage</a>
<ul><li><a href="Electronic_quantum_holography" title="Electronic quantum holography">Electronic quantum holography</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="5D_optical_data_storage" title="5D optical data storage">5D optical data storage</a></li>
<li><a href="DNA_digital_data_storage" title="DNA digital data storage">DNA digital data storage</a></li>
<li><a href="Universal_memory" title="Universal memory">Universal memory</a></li>
<li><a href="Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantum_memory" title="Quantum memory">Quantum memory</a></li>
<li><a href="UltraRAM" title="UltraRAM">UltraRAM</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Historical</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Paper_data_storage" title="Paper data storage">Paper data storage</a> (1725)</li>
<li><a href="Punched_card" title="Punched card">Punched card</a> (1725)</li>
<li><a href="Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">Punched tape</a> (1725)</li>
<li><a href="Plugboard" title="Plugboard">Plugboard</a></li>
<li><a href="Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">Drum memory</a> (1932)</li>
<li><a href="Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">Magnetic-core memory</a> (1949)</li>
<li><a href="Plated-wire_memory" title="Plated-wire memory">Plated-wire memory</a> (1957)</li>
<li><a href="Core_rope_memory" title="Core rope memory">Core rope memory</a> (1960s)</li>
<li><a href="Thin-film_memory" title="Thin-film memory">Thin-film memory</a> (1962)</li>
<li><a href="Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">Disk pack</a> (1962)</li>
<li><a href="Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">Twistor memory</a> (~1968)</li>
<li><a href="Bubble_memory" title="Bubble memory">Bubble memory</a> (~1970)</li>
<li><a href="Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a> (1971)</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">
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<p><b>Computer memory</b> stores information, such as data and programs, for immediate use in the <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>memory</i> is often synonymous with the terms <i><a href="RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM">RAM</a>,</i> <i><a href="Main_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Main memory">main memory</a>,</i> or <i><a href="Primary_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary storage">primary storage</a>.</i> Archaic synonyms for main memory include <i>core</i> (for magnetic core memory) and <i>store</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Main memory operates at a high speed compared to <a href="Mass_storage" title="Mass storage">mass storage</a> which is slower but less expensive per bit and higher in capacity. Besides storing opened programs and data being actively processed, computer memory serves as a <a href="Page_cache" title="Page cache">mass storage cache</a> and <a href="Write_buffer" title="Write buffer">write buffer</a> to improve both reading and writing performance. Operating systems borrow <a href="RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM">RAM</a> capacity for caching so long as it is not needed by running software.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to storage; a common way of doing this is through a memory management technique called <i><a href="Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">virtual memory</a></i>.
</p><p>Modern computer memory is implemented as <a href="Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where data is stored within <a href="Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cells</a> built from <a href="MOS_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS transistor">MOS transistors</a> and other components on an <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory: <a href="Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">volatile</a> and <a href="Non-volatile" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-volatile">non-volatile</a>. Examples of <a href="Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile memory</a> are <a href="Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a> and <a href="ROM" class="mw-redirect" title="ROM">ROM</a>, <a href="Programmable_read-only_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Programmable read-only memory">PROM</a>, <a href="EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a>, and <a href="EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> memory. Examples of <a href="Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">volatile memory</a> are <a href="Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">dynamic random-access memory</a> (DRAM) used for primary storage and <a href="Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">static random-access memory</a> (SRAM) used mainly for <a href="CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">CPU cache</a>.
</p><p>Most semiconductor memory is organized into <a href="Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cells</a> each storing one <a href="Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> (0 or 1). <a href="Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> organization includes both one bit per memory cell and a <a href="Multi-level_cell" title="Multi-level cell">multi-level cell</a> capable of storing multiple bits per cell. The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed <a href="Word_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Word length">word length</a>, for example, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bits. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of <i>N</i> bits, making it possible to store 2<sup><i>N</i></sup> words in the memory.
</p>
<meta property="mw:PageProp/toc">
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>
<p>In the early 1940s, memory technology often permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first electronic programmable <a href="Digital_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computer">digital computer</a>, the <a href="ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, using thousands of <a href="Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits stored in the vacuum tubes.
</p><p>The next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic <a href="Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">delay-line memory</a>, developed by <a href="J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a> in the early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled with <a href="Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store <a href="Bits_of_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Bits of information">bits of information</a> in the form of sound waves propagating through the mercury, with the quartz crystals acting as <a href="Transducer" title="Transducer">transducers</a> to read and write bits. Delay-line memory was limited to a capacity of up to a few thousand bits.
</p><p>Two alternatives to the delay line, the <a href="Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a> and <a href="Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a>, originated in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes as means of storage. Using <a href="Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, Fred Williams invented the Williams tube, which was the first <a href="Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access computer memory</a>. The Williams tube was able to store more information than the Selectron tube (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands) and was less expensive. The Williams tube was nevertheless frustratingly sensitive to environmental disturbances.
</p><p>Efforts began in the late 1940s to find <a href="Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile memory</a>. <a href="Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">Magnetic-core memory</a> allowed for memory recall after power loss. It was developed by Frederick W. Viehe and <a href="An_Wang" title="An Wang">An Wang</a> in the late 1940s, and improved by <a href="Jay_Forrester" class="mw-redirect" title="Jay Forrester">Jay Forrester</a> and <a href="Jan_A._Rajchman" title="Jan A. Rajchman">Jan A. Rajchman</a> in the early 1950s, before being commercialized with the <a href="Whirlwind_I" title="Whirlwind I">Whirlwind I</a> computer in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magnetic-core memory was the dominant form of memory until the development of <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS</a> <a href="Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1966_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1966-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The first <a href="Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> was implemented as a <a href="Flip-flop_(electronics)" title="Flip-flop (electronics)">flip-flop</a> circuit in the early 1960s using <a href="Bipolar_transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar transistors">bipolar transistors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1966_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1966-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Semiconductor memory made from <a href="Discrete_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrete device">discrete devices</a> was first shipped by <a href="Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> to the <a href="United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> in 1961. In the same year, the concept of <a href="Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state</a> memory on an <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC) chip was proposed by <a href="Applications_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Applications engineers">applications engineer</a> Bob Norman at <a href="Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first bipolar semiconductor memory IC chip was the SP95 introduced by <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1966_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1966-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While semiconductor memory offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, it remained larger and more expensive and did not displace magnetic-core memory until the late 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1966_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1966-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="MOS_memory">MOS memory</h3></div>
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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="MOS_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS memory">MOS memory</a></div>
<p>The invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (<a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>) enabled the practical use of <a href="Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) transistors as <a href="Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cell</a> storage elements. MOS memory was developed by John Schmidt at <a href="Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a> in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to higher performance, MOS <a href="Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1970_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1970-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1965, J. Wood and R. Ball of the <a href="Royal_Radar_Establishment" title="Royal Radar Establishment">Royal Radar Establishment</a> proposed digital storage systems that use <a href="CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> (complementary MOS) memory cells, in addition to MOSFET <a href="Power_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Power devices">power devices</a> for the <a href="Power_supply" title="Power supply">power supply</a>, switched cross-coupling, <a href="Switches" class="mw-redirect" title="Switches">switches</a> and <a href="Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">delay-line storage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of <a href="Silicon-gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon-gate">silicon-gate</a> <a href="MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC) technology by <a href="Federico_Faggin" title="Federico Faggin">Federico Faggin</a> at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS <a href="Memory_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory chip">memory chips</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> memory was commercialized by <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> in the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1970_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1970-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The two main types of volatile <a href="Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> (RAM) are <a href="Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">static random-access memory</a> (SRAM) and <a href="Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">dynamic random-access memory</a> (DRAM). Bipolar SRAM was invented by Robert Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1966_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1966-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by the development of MOS SRAM by John Schmidt at Fairchild in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1970_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1970-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SRAM became an alternative to magnetic-core memory, but requires six transistors for each <a href="Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> of data.<sup id="cite_ref-ibm100_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibm100-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced their SP95 SRAM chip for the <a href="IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">System/360 Model 95</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1966_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1966-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a> introduced bipolar DRAM <a href="Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cells</a> for its Toscal BC-1411 <a href="Electronic_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic calculator">electronic calculator</a> in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-bc-spec_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bc-spec-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bc_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bc-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it offered improved performance, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, <a href="Robert_H._Dennard" title="Robert H. Dennard">Robert H. Dennard</a> at the <a href="IBM_Thomas_J._Watson_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center">IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center</a> was working on MOS memory. While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was possible to build <a href="Capacitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Capacitors">capacitors</a>, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor. This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell.<sup id="cite_ref-ibm100_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibm100-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1967, Dennard filed a patent for a single-transistor DRAM memory cell based on MOS technology.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the first commercial DRAM IC chip, the <a href="Intel_1103" title="Intel 1103">Intel 1103</a> in October 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-Intel2003_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intel2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HC_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HC-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek-1103_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek-1103-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Synchronous_dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Synchronous dynamic random-access memory">Synchronous dynamic random-access memory</a> (SDRAM) later debuted with the <a href="Samsung_Electronics" title="Samsung Electronics">Samsung</a> KM48SL2000 chip in 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-electronic-design_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-electronic-design-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The term <i>memory</i> is also often used to refer to <a href="Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile memory</a> including <a href="Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> (ROM) through modern <a href="Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>. <a href="Programmable_read-only_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Programmable read-only memory">Programmable read-only memory</a> (PROM) was invented by <a href="Wen_Tsing_Chow" title="Wen Tsing Chow">Wen Tsing Chow</a> in 1956, while working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation.<sup id="cite_ref-Huang2008_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang2008-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AufaureZimányi2013_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AufaureZimányi2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1967, Dawon Kahng and <a href="Simon_Sze" title="Simon Sze">Simon Sze</a> of Bell Labs proposed that the <a href="Floating_gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating gate">floating gate</a> of a MOS <a href="Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">semiconductor device</a> could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM, which led to <a href="Dov_Frohman" title="Dov Frohman">Dov Frohman</a> of <a href="Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> inventing <a href="EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a> (erasable PROM) in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1971_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1971-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the <a href="Electrotechnical_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrotechnical Laboratory">Electrotechnical Laboratory</a> in 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flash memory was invented by <a href="Fujio_Masuoka" title="Fujio Masuoka">Fujio Masuoka</a> at <a href="Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a> in the early 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of <a href="NOR_flash" class="mw-redirect" title="NOR flash">NOR flash</a> in 1984,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then <a href="NAND_flash" class="mw-redirect" title="NAND flash">NAND flash</a> in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toshiba commercialized NAND flash memory in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Developments in technology and economies of scale have made possible so-called <b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">
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</style><span class="vanchor"><span class="vanchor-text">very large memory</span></span></b> (VLM) computers.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Volatility_categories">Volatility categories</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volatile_memory">Volatile memory</h3></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">Volatile memory</a></div>
<p>Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most modern <a href="Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> volatile memory is either <a href="Static_RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="Static RAM">static RAM</a> (SRAM) or <a href="Dynamic_RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic RAM">dynamic RAM</a> (DRAM).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DRAM dominates for desktop system memory. SRAM is used for <a href="CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">CPU cache</a>. SRAM is also found in small <a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded systems</a> requiring little memory.
</p><p>SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and may use a simpler interface, but <a href="Static_random-access_memory#Design" title="Static random-access memory">commonly uses six transistors per bit</a>. Dynamic RAM is more complicated for interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per-bit costs.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HC_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HC-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-volatile_memory">Non-volatile memory</h3></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Non-volatile memory</a></div>
<p>Non-volatile memory can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include <a href="Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a>, <a href="Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. <a href="Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">hard disk drives</a>, <a href="Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disks</a> and <a href="Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a>), <a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical discs</a>, and early computer storage methods such as <a href="Magnetic_drum" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic drum">magnetic drum</a>, <a href="Paper_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper tape">paper tape</a> and <a href="Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Non-volatile memory technologies under development include <a href="Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">ferroelectric RAM</a>, <a href="Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">programmable metallization cell</a>, <a href="Spin-transfer_torque_magnetic_RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin-transfer torque magnetic RAM">Spin-transfer torque magnetic RAM</a>, <a href="SONOS" title="SONOS">SONOS</a>, <a href="Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">resistive random-access memory</a>, <a href="Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">racetrack memory</a>, <a href="Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">Nano-RAM</a>, <a href="3D_XPoint" title="3D XPoint">3D XPoint</a>, and <a href="Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">millipede memory</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semi-volatile_memory">Semi-volatile memory</h3></div>
<p>A third category of memory is <i>semi-volatile</i>. The term is used to describe a memory that has some limited non-volatile duration after power is removed, but then data is ultimately lost. A typical goal when using a semi-volatile memory is to provide the high performance and durability associated with volatile memories while providing some benefits of non-volatile memory.
</p><p>For example, some non-volatile memory types experience wear when written. A <i>worn</i> cell has increased volatility but otherwise continues to work. Data locations which are written frequently can thus be directed to use worn circuits. As long as the location is updated within some known retention time, the data stays valid. After a period of time without update, the value is copied to a less-worn circuit with longer retention. Writing first to the worn area allows a high write rate while avoiding wear on the not-worn circuits.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>As a second example, an <a href="STT-RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="STT-RAM">STT-RAM</a> can be made non-volatile by building large cells, but doing so raises the cost per bit and power requirements and reduces the write speed. Using small cells improves cost, power, and speed, but leads to semi-volatile behavior. In some applications, the increased volatility can be managed to provide many benefits of a non-volatile memory, for example by removing power but forcing a wake-up before data is lost; or by caching read-only data and discarding the cached data if the power-off time exceeds the non-volatile threshold.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The term semi-volatile is also used to describe semi-volatile behavior constructed from other memory types, such as <a href="NvSRAM" title="NvSRAM">nvSRAM</a>, which combines <a href="Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">SRAM</a> and a non-volatile memory on the same <a href="Microchip" class="mw-redirect" title="Microchip">chip</a>, where an external signal copies data from the volatile memory to the non-volatile memory, but if power is removed before the copy occurs, the data is lost. Another example is <a href="Battery-backed_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery-backed memory">battery-backed RAM</a>, which uses an external <a href="Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">battery</a> to power the memory device in case of external power loss. If power is off for an extended period of time, the battery may run out, resulting in data loss.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Memory_management" title="Memory management">Memory management</a></div>
<p>Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly. Modern <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> have complex systems to properly manage memory. Failure to do so can lead to bugs or slow performance.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bugs">Bugs</h3></div>
<p>Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs and security vulnerabilities, including the following types:
</p>
<ul><li>A <a href="Memory_leak" title="Memory leak">memory leak</a> occurs when a program requests memory from the operating system and never returns the memory when it is done with it. A program with this bug will gradually require more and more memory until the program fails as the operating system runs out.</li>
<li>A <a href="Segmentation_fault" title="Segmentation fault">segmentation fault</a> results when a program tries to access memory that it does not have permission to access. Generally, a program doing so will be terminated by the operating system.</li>
<li>A <a href="Buffer_overflow" title="Buffer overflow">buffer overflow</a> occurs when a program writes data to the end of its allocated space and then continues to write data beyond this to memory that has been allocated for other purposes. This may result in erratic program behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security. They are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtual_memory">Virtual memory</h3></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></div>
<p>Virtual memory is a system where <a href="Physical_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical memory">physical memory</a> is managed by the operating system typically with assistance from a <a href="Memory_management_unit" title="Memory management unit">memory management unit</a>, which is part of many modern <a href="CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPUs</a>. It allows multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some data can be stored in RAM while other data is stored on a <a href="Hard_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard drive">hard drive</a> (e.g. in a <a href="Swapfile" class="mw-redirect" title="Swapfile">swapfile</a>), functioning as an extension of the <a href="Cache_hierarchy" title="Cache hierarchy">cache hierarchy</a>. This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where their data is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory. The operating system will place actively used data in RAM, which is much faster than hard disks. When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving data from RAM to disk and back than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as <a href="Thrashing_(computer_science)" title="Thrashing (computer science)">thrashing</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protected_memory">Protected memory</h3></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">Memory protection</a></div>
<p>Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is prevented from going outside that range. If the operating system detects that a program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated (or otherwise restricted or redirected). This way, only the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the misbehavior (whether accidental or intentional). Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and security of a computer system.
</p><p>Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another program. This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results. If the operating system's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need to be <a href="Reboot_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reboot (computing)">rebooted</a>. At times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs. This is done by viruses and malware to take over computers. It may also be used benignly by desirable programs which are intended to modify other programs, <a href="Debugger" title="Debugger">debuggers</a>, for example, to insert breakpoints or hooks.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_memory" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Computer memory">Computer memory</a></span>.</div></div>
</div>
<ul><li><a href="Memory_geometry" title="Memory geometry">Memory geometry</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</a></li>
<li><a href="Memory_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory organization">Memory organization</a></li>
<li><a href="Processor_register" title="Processor register">Processor registers</a> store data but normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing mechanism.</li>
<li><a href="Universal_memory" title="Universal memory">Universal memory</a>, memory combining both large capacity and high speed</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Other volatile memory technologies that have attempted to compete or replace SRAM and DRAM include <a href="Z-RAM" title="Z-RAM">Z-RAM</a> and <a href="A-RAM" title="A-RAM">A-RAM</a>.</span>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTaruiHayashiNagai1972" class="citation journal cs1">Tarui, Y.; Hayashi, Y.; Nagai, K. (1972). "Electrically reprogrammable nonvolatile semiconductor memory". <i>IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits</i>. <b>7</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">369–</span>375. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972IJSSC...7..369T">1972IJSSC...7..369T</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJSSC.1972.1052895">10.1109/JSSC.1972.1052895</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9200">0018-9200</a>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFulford2002" class="citation web cs1">Fulford, Benjamin (24 June 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/global/2002/0624/030.html">"Unsung hero"</a>. <i>Forbes</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080303205125/http://www.forbes.com/global/2002/0624/030.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}
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</style><span class="citation patent"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US4531203">US 4531203</a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=4531203&rft.cc=US&rft.title="><span style="display: none;"> </span></span> Fujio Masuoka</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flash25.toshiba.com">"Toshiba: Inventor of Flash Memory"</a>. <i><a href="Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMasuokaMomodomiIwataShirota1987" class="citation conference cs1">Masuoka, F.; Momodomi, M.; Iwata, Y.; Shirota, R. (1987). "1987 International Electron Devices Meeting". <i>Electron Devices Meeting, 1987 International</i>. <a href="International_Electron_Devices_Meeting" title="International Electron Devices Meeting">IEDM</a> 1987. <a href="IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">552–</span>555. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEDM.1987.191485">10.1109/IEDM.1987.191485</a>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eweek.com/storage/1987-toshiba-launches-nand-flash">"1987: Toshiba Launches NAND Flash"</a>. <i><a href="EWeek" title="EWeek">eWeek</a></i>. April 11, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/reusable-semiconductor-rom-introduced/">"1971: Reusable semiconductor ROM introduced"</a>. <i><a href="Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:2-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStanek2009" class="citation book cs1">Stanek, William R. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SbxixF4iAEcC"><i>Windows Server 2008 Inside Out</i></a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 1520. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7356-3806-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130127064935/http://books.google.com/books?id=SbxixF4iAEcC">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-01-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-20</span></span>. <q>[...] Windows Server Enterprise supports clustering with up to eight-node clusters and very large memory (VLM) configurations of up to 32 GB on 32-bit systems and 2 TB on 64-bit systems.</q></cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMontierth,_Briggs,_Keithley" class="citation web cs1">Montierth, Briggs, Keithley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US7710777B1/">"Semi-volatile NAND flash memory"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKeppel,_Naeimi,_Nasrullah" class="citation web cs1">Keppel, Naeimi, Nasrullah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US9342403B2/">"Method and apparatus for managing a spin-transfer torque memory"</a>. <i>Google Patents</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>
<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMiller1977" class="citation cs2">Miller, Stephen W. (1977), <i>Memory and Storage Technology</i>, Montvale.: AFIPS Press</cite></li>
<li><cite class="citation cs2"><i>Memory and Storage Technology</i>, Alexandria, Virginia.: Time Life Books, 1988</cite></li></ul>
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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5830907#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1777" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5830907#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1777" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Hauptspeicher"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4159219-0">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Computer storage devices"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85029541">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ordinateurs -- Mémoires"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11940192f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ordinateurs -- Mémoires"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11940192f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="paměť (výpočetní technika)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph136822&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007545618605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/e18d6e45-3a31-442d-a5e3-ff125983ce21">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Basic_computer_components192" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Basic_computer_components192" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Basic <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Input_device" title="Input device">Input devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pointing_device" title="Pointing device">Pointing devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Graphics_tablet" title="Graphics tablet">Graphics tablet</a></li>
<li><a href="Game_controller" title="Game controller">Game controller</a></li>
<li><a href="Light_pen" title="Light pen">Light pen</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a>
<ul><li><a href="Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">Optical</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Optical_trackpad" title="Optical trackpad">Optical trackpad</a></li>
<li><a href="Pointing_stick" title="Pointing stick">Pointing stick</a></li>
<li><a href="Touchpad" title="Touchpad">Touchpad</a></li>
<li><a href="Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreen</a></li>
<li><a href="Trackball" title="Trackball">Trackball</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">Keyboard</a></li>
<li><a href="Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">Image scanner</a></li>
<li><a href="Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a>
<ul><li><a href="Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPU</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphone</a></li>
<li><a href="Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li>
<li><a href="Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a>
<ul><li><a href="Sound_chip" title="Sound chip">Sound chip</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Webcam" title="Webcam">Webcam</a>
<ul><li><a href="Softcam" title="Softcam">Softcam</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Output_device" title="Output device">Output devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">Monitor</a>
<ul><li><a href="Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li>
<li><a href="Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">Printer</a>
<ul><li><a href="Plotter" title="Plotter">Plotter</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Computer_speakers" title="Computer speakers">Speakers</a></li>
<li><a href="Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a></li>
<li><a href="Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Removable_media" title="Removable media">Removable <br> data storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">Disk pack</a></li>
<li><a href="Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a></li>
<li><a href="Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a>
<ul><li><a href="Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a></li>
<li><a href="DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li>
<li><a href="Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a>
<ul><li><a href="Memory_card" title="Memory card">Memory card</a></li>
<li><a href="USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_case" title="Computer case">Computer case</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a>
<ul><li><a href="Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Motherboard" title="Motherboard">Motherboard</a></li>
<li>
<ul><li><a href="Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a></li>
<li><a href="Nonvolatile_BIOS_memory" title="Nonvolatile BIOS memory">BIOS</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Data storage</a>
<ul><li><a href="Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">HDD</a></li>
<li><a href="Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">SSD</a> (<a href="SATA" title="SATA">SATA</a> / <a href="NVM_Express" title="NVM Express">NVMe</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Solid-state_hybrid_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state hybrid drive">SSHD</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Power_supply_unit_(computer)" title="Power supply unit (computer)">Power supply</a>
<ul><li><a href="Switched-mode_power_supply" title="Switched-mode power supply">SMPS</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>
<ul><li><a href="Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li>
<li><a href="Voltage_regulator_module" title="Voltage regulator module">VRM</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">Network interface controller</a></li>
<li><a href="Fax_modem" title="Fax modem">Fax modem</a></li>
<li><a href="Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">Expansion card</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_port_(hardware)" title="Computer port (hardware)">Ports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>
<li><a href="USB" title="USB">USB</a></li>
<li><a href="Thunderbolt_(interface)" title="Thunderbolt (interface)">Thunderbolt</a></li>
<li><a href="Phone_connector_(audio)" title="Phone connector (audio)">Analog audio jack</a></li>
<li><a href="DisplayPort" title="DisplayPort">DisplayPort</a></li>
<li><a href="HDMI" title="HDMI">HDMI</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obsolete</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="IEEE_1394" title="IEEE 1394">FireWire</a> (IEEE 1394)</li>
<li><a href="Parallel_port" title="Parallel port">Parallel port</a></li>
<li><a href="Serial_port" title="Serial port">Serial port</a></li>
<li><a href="Game_port" title="Game port">Game port</a></li>
<li><a href="PS/2_port" title="PS/2 port">PS/2 port</a></li>
<li><a href="Serial_ATA" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial ATA">eSATA</a></li>
<li><a href="Digital_Visual_Interface" title="Digital Visual Interface">DVI</a></li>
<li><a href="VGA_connector" title="VGA connector">VGA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li>
<li><a href="History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Processing_benchmarks159" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Processing_benchmarks159" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Processing <a href="Benchmark_(computing)" title="Benchmark (computing)">benchmarks</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Free_software" title="Free software">Free software</a></li>
<li><a href="Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary software</a></li>
<li><a href="Performance_per_watt" title="Performance per watt">Performance per watt</a></li>
<li><a href="Data_center_infrastructure_efficiency" title="Data center infrastructure efficiency">Data center infrastructure efficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="Giga-updates_per_second" title="Giga-updates per second">Giga-updates per second</a> (memory)</li>
<li><a href="CPU_power_dissipation" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU power dissipation">CPU power dissipation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="EEMBC" title="EEMBC">EEMBC</a></li>
<li><a href="Futuremark" title="Futuremark">Futuremark</a></li>
<li><a href="Standard_Performance_Evaluation_Corporation" title="Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation">Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation</a> (SPEC)</li>
<li><a href="Transaction_Processing_Performance_Council" title="Transaction Processing Performance Council">Transaction Processing Performance Council</a> (TPC)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Floating-point_unit" title="Floating-point unit">Floating-point unit</a> (<a href="FLOPS" class="mw-redirect" title="FLOPS">FLOPS</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="SPECfp" title="SPECfp">SPECfp</a></li>
<li><a href="LINPACK_benchmarks" title="LINPACK benchmarks">LINPACK</a></li>
<li><a href="LAPACK" title="LAPACK">LAPACK</a></li>
<li><a href="Prime95" title="Prime95">Prime95</a></li>
<li><a href="Super_PI" title="Super PI">Super PI</a></li>
<li><a href="SuperPrime" title="SuperPrime">SuperPrime</a></li>
<li><a href="Whetstone_(benchmark)" title="Whetstone (benchmark)">Whetstone</a></li>
<li><a href="IBM_iSeries_benchmarks" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM iSeries benchmarks">IBM iSeries benchmarks</a> (Computational Intensive Workload)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Integer" title="Integer">Integer</a> (<a href="Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">ALU</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Dhrystone" title="Dhrystone">Dhrystone</a></li>
<li><a href="Fhourstones" title="Fhourstones">Fhourstones</a></li>
<li><a href="SPECint" title="SPECint">SPECint</a></li>
<li><a href="CoreMark" class="mw-redirect" title="CoreMark">CoreMark</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">Digital signal processor</a> (DSP)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>BTDi</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a> (GPU)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="BRL-CAD" title="BRL-CAD">BRL-CAD</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="DEISA_Benchmark_Suite" class="mw-redirect" title="DEISA Benchmark Suite">DEISA Benchmark Suite</a></li>
<li><a href="Livermore_loops" title="Livermore loops">Livermore loops</a></li>
<li><a href="NAS_Parallel_Benchmarks" title="NAS Parallel Benchmarks">NAS Parallel Benchmarks</a></li>
<li><a href="HPC_Challenge_Benchmark" title="HPC Challenge Benchmark">HPC Challenge Benchmark</a></li>
<li><a href="Princeton_Application_Repository_for_Shared-Memory_Computers" title="Princeton Application Repository for Shared-Memory Computers">Princeton Application Repository for Shared-Memory Computers</a> (PARSEC)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Peripherals" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripherals">Peripherals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>BreakingPoint Systems</li>
<li><a href="SUPS" title="SUPS">SUPS</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Filesystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Filesystems">Filesystems</a> and storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bonnie%2B%2B" title="Bonnie++">Bonnie++</a></li>
<li><a href="HD_Tach" title="HD Tach">HD Tach</a></li>
<li><a href="IOzone" title="IOzone">IOzone</a></li>
<li><a href="Diskspd" class="mw-redirect" title="Diskspd">Diskspd</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>BSS Random Access benchmark</li>
<li><a href="HPC_Challenge_Benchmark" title="HPC Challenge Benchmark">HPC Challenge Random Memory Access</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">Input/output</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Iometer" title="Iometer">Iometer</a></li>
<li>Ioblazer</li>
<li><a href="IBM_iSeries_benchmarks" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM iSeries benchmarks">IBM iSeries benchmarks</a> (Commercial Processing Workload)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer system (entire)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Hierarchical_INTegration" title="Hierarchical INTegration">Hierarchical INTegration</a> (HINT)</li>
<li><a href="NBench" title="NBench">NBench</a> (CPU, memory)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Energy consumption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Average_CPU_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Average CPU power">Average CPU power</a> (<a href="X86" title="X86">x86</a>)</li>
<li><a href="EEMBC" title="EEMBC">EEMBC</a> (<a href="Embedded_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded systems">embedded systems</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Data_center_infrastructure_efficiency" title="Data center infrastructure efficiency">Data center infrastructure efficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="SPECpower" title="SPECpower">SPECpower</a> (<a href="Java_(software_platform)" title="Java (software platform)">Java</a> software)</li>
<li><a href="Server_Efficiency_Rating_Tool" title="Server Efficiency Rating Tool">Server Efficiency Rating Tool</a> (SERT)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> engine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Browser_speed_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser speed test">Browser speed test</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cycles_per_byte" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycles per byte">Cycles per byte</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Multiuser" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiuser">Multiuser</a> system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="SDET" title="SDET">SDET</a></li>
<li><a href="AIM_Multiuser_Benchmark" title="AIM Multiuser Benchmark">AIM Multiuser Benchmark</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="VMmark" title="VMmark">VMmark</a></li>
<li><a href="SPECvirt" title="SPECvirt">SPECvirt</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Recursion" title="Recursion">Recursion</a> performance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Tak_(function)" title="Tak (function)">Tak (function)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Database_transaction" title="Database transaction">Database transactions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="TATP_Benchmark" title="TATP Benchmark">TATP Benchmark</a></li>
<li><a href="Transaction_Processing_over_XML" title="Transaction Processing over XML">Transaction Processing over XML</a> (TPoX)</li>
<li><a href="YCSB" title="YCSB">YCSB</a> (<a href="NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Web_server_benchmarking" title="Web server benchmarking">Web server benchmarking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Apache_JMeter" title="Apache JMeter">Apache JMeter</a></li>
<li><a href="Curl-loader" title="Curl-loader">Curl-loader</a></li>
<li><a href="Httperf" title="Httperf">httperf</a></li>
<li><a href="OpenSTA" title="OpenSTA">OpenSTA</a></li>
<li><a href="TPC-W" title="TPC-W">TPC-W</a></li>
<li><a href="Tsung" title="Tsung">Tsung</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Platform specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Adjusted_Peak_Performance" title="Adjusted Peak Performance">Adjusted Peak Performance</a> (<a href="Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapon</a> simulation)</li>
<li><a href="AnTuTu" title="AnTuTu">AnTuTu</a> (<a href="ARM_architecture_family" title="ARM architecture family">ARM</a>)</li>
<li><a href="BogoMips" title="BogoMips">BogoMips</a> (<a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Coremark" title="Coremark">Coremark</a> (<a href="Embedded_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded systems">embedded systems</a>)</li>
<li><a href="ICOMP_(index)" title="ICOMP (index)">iCOMP (index)</a> (Intel)</li>
<li><a href="Novabench" title="Novabench">Novabench</a> (Windows and <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Phoronix_Test_Suite" title="Phoronix Test Suite">Phoronix Test Suite</a> (Linux)</li>
<li><a href="Performance_Rating" title="Performance Rating">Performance Rating</a> (AMD)</li>
<li><a href="Sysinfo" title="Sysinfo">Sysinfo</a> & <a href="SysSpeed" class="mw-redirect" title="SysSpeed">SysSpeed</a> (<a href="Motorola_68k" class="mw-redirect" title="Motorola 68k">Motorola 68k</a>)</li>
<li><a href="WorldBench" title="WorldBench">WorldBench</a> (Windows)</li></ul>
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